Переводчик Колосёнок Полина Ивановна

Wind Turbines extract energy from the force of the wind on an aerofoil, in this case a turbine blade. The relative motion between the air flow and the turbine blade, is the same as for the aircraft wing, but in this case the wind is in motion towards the turbine blades and the blades are passive so that the external thrust provided by the moving air flow is in the opposite direction to the thrust provided by the aircraft wing. The turbine blades thus experience lift and drag forces, similar to the aircraft wing, which set the blades in motion transferring the wind energy into the kinetic energy of the blades

The turbine blades are connected to a single rotor shaft and the force of the wind along the length of the blades creates a torque which turns the rotor.

As with aircraft wings, the magnitudes of the lift and drag on the turbine blade are dependent on the angle of attack between the apparent wind direction and the chord line of the blade.

The dynamics of wind turbines is however slightly more complex than the dynamics of a simple wing because the direction of the gravitational force on the turbine blade changes with the rotation of the turbine rotor.

In a "theoretical" turbine with a single blade operating with a constant wind force, the magnitude and direction of the lift and drag with respect to the aerofoil profile will be constant throughout the full 360° rotation of the turbine rotor but the direction of the lift with respect to the ground will depend on the position of the rotor. The magnitude of the gravitational force on the blade will also be constant for any position of the rotor but the horizontal position of the centre of gravity of the blade with respect to the centre of the rotor will vary as the rotor turns. The net effect of these forces on the rotor torque depends on the position of the rotor.

· When the blade is horizontal and moving upwards it is moving against the force of gravity which is pulling the blade downwards so that the net lifting force on the blade and the resulting torque on the rotor is reduced.

· After 180° rotation of the rotor, the blade is once more horizontal but upside down and moving downwards so that the "lifting force" due to the wind is in the opposite direction and reinforces the downwards gravitational force so that the torque on the rotor is increased.

Experts now agree that schizophrenia develops as a result of interplay between biological predisposition (for example, inheriting certain genes) and the kind of environment a person is exposed to. These lines of research are converging: brain development disruption is now known to be the result of genetic predisposition and environmental stressors early in development (during pregnancy or early childhood), leading to subtle alterations in the brain that make a person susceptible to developing schizophrenia. Environmental factors later in life (during early childhood and adolescence) can either damage the brain further and thereby increase the risk of schizophrenia, or lessen the expression of genetic or neurodevelopmental defects and decrease the risk of schizophrenia. In fact experts now say that schizophrenia (and all other mental illness) is caused by a combination of biological, psychological and social factors, and this understanding of mental illness is called the bio-psycho-social model.

Neither the biological nor the environmental (psycho-social) categories is completely determinant, and there is no specified amount of input that will ensure someone will or will not develop schizophrenia. Moreover, risk factors may be different for different individuals - while one person may develop schizophrenia due largely to a strong family history of mental illness (e.g. a high level of genetic risk), someone else with much less genetic vulnerability may also develop the disease due to a more significant combination of prepregnancy factors, pregnancy stress, other prenatal factors, social stress, family stress or environmental factors that they experience during their childhood, teen or early adult years. The exact process by which environmental factors and stress gets translated into brain changes and ultimately psychosis or schizophrenia is increasingly thought to be a result of epigenetics, and recent research suggests exactly how stress might trigger these brain changes.

The Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench is the deepest known point in Earth's oceans. In 2010 the United States Center for Coastal & Ocean Mapping measured the depth of the Challenger Deep at 10,994 meters (36,070 feet) below sea level with an estimated vertical accuracy of ± 40 meters. If Mount Everest, the highest mountain on Earth, were placed at this location it would be covered by over one mile of water.

The first depth measurements in the Mariana Trench were made by the British survey ship HMS Challenger, which was used by the Royal Navy in 1875 to conduct research in the trench. The greatest depth that they recorded at that time was 8,184 meters (26,850 feet).

In 1951, another Royal Navy vessel, also named the "HMS Challenger," returned to the area for additional measurements. They discovered an even deeper location with a depth of 10,900 meters (35,760 feet) determined by echo sounding. The Challenger Deep was named after the Royal Navy vessel that made these measurements.

The Mariana Trench is located at a convergent plate boundary. Here two converging plates of oceanic lithosphere collide with one another. At this collision point, one of the plates descends into the mantle. At the line of contact between the two plates, the downward flexure forms a trough known as an ocean trench. An example of an ocean trench is shown in the diagram. Ocean trenches form some of the deepest locations in Earth's oceans.

The Mariana Trench occurs along a plate boundary between the Philippine Plate and the Pacific Plate. The Pacific Plate is on the eastern and southern side of this boundary, and the Philippine Plate is on the western and northern side of this boundary.

Both of these plates are moving in a northwesterly direction, but the Pacific Plate is moving faster than the Philippine Plate. The motion of these plates produces a convergent plate boundary because the greater speed of the Pacific Plate is causing it to collide into the Philippine Plate. This collision produces a subduction zone at the Mariana Trench as the Pacific Plate descends into the mantle and under the Philippine Plate.

A remarkable number of doom-laden prophecies arose during the opening years of the new millennium, all relating to the linguistic evils which would be unleashed by texting. The prophecies went something like this:

· Texting uses new and nonstandard orthography.

· This will inevitably erode children’s ability to spell, punctuate, and capitalize correctly – an ability already thought to be poor.

· They will inevitably transfer these new habits into the rest of their schoolwork.

· This will inevitably give them poorer marks in examinations.

· A new generation of adults will inevitably grow up unable to write proper English.

· Eventually the language as a whole will inevitably decline.

There was never any clear evidence supporting these assertions, but that did not stop them being made. And when someone found a piece of writing which did seem to support the argument – the child who supposedly wrote her essay entirely in a texting style (p. 24) – it was immediately publicized as being typical of a generation. The one extract from that essay was reproduced in hundreds of newspapers and websites all over the world. The full essay, if it existed, was never presented. And no other examples of this kind have since been found. Every time I talk to groups of teachers and examiners, I ask them whether they have encountered anything remotely similar. None of them ever has.

Scotland's most famous connection with Europe was the Auld Alliance with France. First agreed in 1295/6 the Auld Alliance was built on Scotland and France's shared need to curtail English expansion. Primarily it was a military and diplomatic alliance but for most of the population it brought tangible benefits through pay as mercenaries in France's armies and the pick of finest French wines.

Shakespeare's 'Henry V' rightly portrays the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 as one of England's greatest military victories. For the French it was a disaster that led to the near collapse of their kingdom. In their darkest hour the Dauphin turned to the Scots, England's enemy, for salvation.

Between 1419 and 1424, 15,000 Scots left from the River Clyde to fight in France. In 1421 at the Battle of Bauge the Scots dealt a crushing defeat to the English and slew the Duke of Clarence.

Honours and rewards were heaped upon the Scots army by the French. The Earl of Douglas was given the royal Dukedom of Touraine and the Scots army lived well off the land, much to the chagrin of the French peasantry.

Their victory was short lived however; at Vernuil in 1424 a Scots army of 4,000 men was annihilated. As mercenaries they could have expected no mercy and those who were captured were dispatched on the spot. Despite their defeat, the Scots had brought France valuable breathing space and effectively saved the country from English domination.

Many Scots continued to serve in France. They aided Joan of Arc in her famous relief of Orleans and many went on to form the Garde Écossais, the fiercely loyal bodyguard of the French Kings, where they were at the very heart of French politics.